Демон

The belief that malicious entities lie behind natural disasters and other unpleasant aspects of human life is very old and is still prevalent in many traditional societies. Especially before the development of scientific discoveries that proffered more neutral explanations for the irregularities of nature, it was not unreasonable to postulate that such beings were responsible for unexplainable natural disasters and diseases. Although scientific explanations have gradually supplanted metaphysical explanations, demons and devils presently survive in the mythology of Jung’s collective unconscious and in other schools of the study of the mind that interpret evil forces as projections of human fear and/or as hallucinations.

While often the two words are used interchangeably— devils from Greek dia-ballo, to throw across, that is, accuser; and demons from Greek daimon, spirit—their meaning evolved through the centuries and in different religious traditions. Devils have always had a negative connotation as evil forces whereas demons could be either good or evil, depending on their individual nature. Daimones in ancient Greece were tutelary semidivine spirits of either good or bad nature.

In the early stages of Judaism, demons were not a major aspect of the religious belief system. During the first diaspora, when the Jews were in contact with the dualist vision of Zoroastrianism, a more defined role for demons was developed within the tradition, in particular in the aggadah that reflected popular rabbinic beliefs. These mythological figures drew from indigenous pagan beliefs (such as the shedim) and were believed to be either creations of God or offspring of Lilith, the first wife of Adam. In the cabala during the Middle Ages, the evil forces of the Jewish tradition took definite forms, names, and roles, although they were never really fully accepted into Orthodox Judaism.

The Greek word daimon was used in the Roman and Hellenistic world to indicate evil forces, and thus entered early Christian writings with the negative connotation of impure spirits. The Judeo-Christian tradition elaborated the concept of the Devil as the fallen angel who tempted Adam and Eve and was forever banished from Paradise. Christian literature also drew upon the belief systems of their neighbors in the depiction of the Apocalypse, wherein appear demons that recall Jewish, Persian, and Mesopotamian myths. In the transmission of the texts of the Scriptures the devil (in Hellenistic Greek, diabolos) came to be identified with Satan (the name used in the Hebrew bible to indicate an adversary). The belief in evil powers as the source of sicknesses and problems for humans is found in early Christian literature, and Christian theology acknowledges evil as necessary for the fulfillment of free will. From very early, Christianity developed the practice of exorcism to expel evil spirits who had taken control of human individuals. In medieval Europe, the belief in the existence of demons came to be associated with witchcraft and contributed to the development of the practice of exorcism and witch-hunting.

Since the early drafting of the Koran, Muslims have also believed in the existence of demonic forces, known as shaytan, who are in constant revolt against God—ifrit, marid, and jann (a.k.a. jinn, pre-Islamic hostile spirits in general associated with the desert). Sometimes these evil forces are identified with animals (such as the snake and the scorpion) or with natural elements. One ambiguous figure, divine and evil (jinn) at the same time, is Iblis, who partially resembles the Devil of the Judeo-Christian tradition as a fallen angel. Believed to be eternally expelled from the Garden of heaven for refusing to bow, upon God’s order, in front of Adam (i.e., a being made of earth), he gradually also came to be called Satan.

The Hindu tradition is rich with mythic figures of divine, or semidivine, superhuman nature. In its literature demons are hierarchically ranked in various cosmic layers. Demons who belong to the lower part of hierarchy are demonic, dark beings, such as the asuras, who are always adversaries to humankind. Raksasas are demons who embody various hostile animals (snakes, vultures, etc.), are identified with spirits of the night, kill people, and resemble vampires.

Other demons of the Indian tradition that passed into Buddhism are the bhutas, the pretas, and pisacas. Buddhism, especially at the popular level, inherited the lore of mythological Hinduism about the asuras and other demons. They belong to the category of sentient beings (like humans and gods), and as such are subject to the cycle of reincarnation. The Buddhist archfiend is Mara, who in vain tempted Gautama shortly before his enlightenment. Evil forces are encountered in the Burmese Buddhist figures of the nats and other ghosts who inflict pain on humans. In Mahayana Buddhism demons are alternatively good or evil in their efforts to keep their devotees in the faith.

A number of female demonic figures have also been developed that explain children’s sicknesses or death. In medieval central and eastern Europe the lamias, mythic figures of Greek and Roman origin, were believed to kill all children by drinking their blood; the Hindu Churalin (who embodies the women who died because of childbirth), and in Islam ghul, are female demons who lie in wait and practice cannibalism. In Judaism Lilith, considered to be the first wife of Adam, typically was believed to attack children.

Most of the traditional cultures of the world visualize the universe as a three-tiered cosmos of heaven, earth, and underworld.Heaven is reserved for deities, living human beings occupy the middle world, and demons often reside in the underworld. The spirits of the dead are also often perceived as living underground, perhaps as a result of the custom of burial in the ground.

In Christianity, the ancient underworld that, originally, was the common fate of humanity became a realm of torture in which sinners and unbelievers were tormented for eternity. In the Christian tradition in particular, underworld devils acquired employment tormenting the souls of the damned, though the earliest Christian idea was that stern, righteous angels tormented the damned. As the righteous angels were imaginatively removed from hell, Satan, ruler of all other devils, became king of the underworld.

As portrayed in the New Testament, demons constitute the infernal equivalent of God’s celestial host.While angels go about helping human beings and doing good, demons harass humanity and go about doing evil. Christian scriptures relate many stories about exorcisms in which possessed individuals are freed from demons. According to the Gospels, healing the sick and the deranged by exorcising demons constituted a major aspect of Jesus’ ministry (e.g., Matthew 15:22 and 15:28; Luke 4:33–35). Jesus also imparted the power to exorcise to the disciples (Matthew 10:1).

As related in one familiar Gospel tale, demons can also possess animals: “Now there was there nigh unto the mountains a great herd of swine feeding. And all the devils besought him, saying, Send us into the swine, that we may enter into them. And forthwith Jesus gave them leave. And the unclean spirits went out, and entered into the swine: and the herd ran violently down a steep place into the sea, (they were about two thousand;) and were choked in the sea” (Mark 5:7–13). Although the story is not spelled out in the Bible, a number of passages seem to allude to the wellknown story about Satan leading a celestial revolt. By implication, demons were formerly angels who were cast out of heaven with Lucifer after the failure of his revolution. Defeated in the celestial realm, the infernal host continues a kind of guerrilla warfare against God’s people in the earthly realm, as reflected in a familiar passage from the Book of Ephesians:

"For we wrestle not against flesh and blood human but against principalities, against powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world, against spiritual wickedness in high places (6:12)."

The primary point of their attack is in trying to seduce Christians into departing from the path of salvation by teaching falsehoods:

"The Spirit expressly says that in later times some will depart from the faith by giving heed to deceitful spirits and doctrines of demons, through the pretensions of liars.(1 Tim. 4:1–2)."

In addition to their assault on Christians, another strategy in the guerrilla war against heaven is for demons to assume the forms of gods and goddesses of other religions. The people who worship pagan deities cannot be saved:

"What pagans sacrifice they offer to demons and not to God. I do not want you to be partners with demons. You cannot drink the cup of the Lord and the cup of demons. You cannot partake of the table of the Lord and the table of demons. (1 Cor. 10:20–21)."

In the United States, survey research indicates that about a third of all Americans accept the idea that Satan is a conscious, active entity. Presumably, they have similar beliefs regarding demons. The great majority of people holding this tenet are conservative Christians.An opinion poll conduced by Time magazine in 1993 indicated that 49 percent of the population believed in fallen angels or devils. (The question was poorly worded so that a more precise survey might not reflect this high a figure.) In the present-day Christian world, only Catholic Ireland ranks as high as the U.S. in terms of belief in the existence of a Satanic being.

Liberal Christianity is a different story. As a Baptist periodical noted, “Religious liberals do not believe in the literal reality and actual personality of Satan. . . . The devil or Satan is not at all a real person, but only an impersonal evil force present and operating in the world” (“Does Satan Really Exist?” 1993). The unnamed author of this piece goes on to assert that,“Any system of religious belief that denies the literal reality and actual personality of Satan is radically unChristian and unBiblical in nature and clearly under the dominion of the very devil whom it denies.”This article estimates that 75 percent of American ministers held this nonrealistic view of the Prince of Darkness, implying that most Christian churches are unChristian.

The difference between conservative and liberal faith traditions is that conservatives interpret scripture literally, with the idea that the Bible must be embraced as a whole rather than piecemeal. Liberals, on the other hand, distinguish between what they regard as the core of Jesus’ teachings and what might be understood as the folklore of New Testament times. This folklore would include the prescientific belief in demons and the like, which liberal Christians feel can be ejected without disturbing the central message of the Gospels.

Conservative Christians generally view liberal Christianity as being under the sway of demonic forces. Furthermore, in line with the apostle Paul’s assertion in 1 Corinthians cited above, conservative Christians also believe that demons founded and continue to shape all non-Christian traditions. As asserted in Demons in the World Today, “The great ethnic faiths of India, China and Japan major in demonism, as well as the animistic religions of Africa, South America and some Islands.” Conservative Christians take a similar position with respect to occult/metaphysical/new age religion. To cite a sample passage from Lee and Hindson’s Angels of Deceit:

"Today people are experimenting with astrology, witchcraft, Ouija boards, divination, channeling, Tarot cards, fortune-tellers, mediums, crystals and shamans.Mankind has come to the final conclusion of disbelief in God and has turned to belief in the very opposite! Satan has cleverly convinced the modern mind that he is not to be taken seriously until all other spiritual options are exhausted. Then, when empty souls turn to him in desperation, he can take them over completely and totally. (118)"

Finally we should note that some commentators, even within the conservative Christian community, view the seemingly obsessive interest in Satan as itself embodying demonic activity. As C. S. Lewis wrote in The Screwtape Letters, “There are two equal and opposite errors into which our race can fall about the devils. One is to disbelieve in their existence. The other is to believe, and to feel an excessive and unhealthy interest in them. They themselves are equally pleased by both errors” (Lewis 1961, 3).

For Further Reading: Barn, George. The Index of Leading Spiritual Indicators. Dallas, TX:Word Publishing, 1996. ———.What Americans Believe. Ventura, CA: Regal Books, 1991. Cognac, J. F. Handbook about Demon Possession for Human Service Workers. http://www.gelservices.com/hs.html. “Does Satan Really Exist?” Our Baptist Heritage, March/April 1993. Text published at: http://www.worldmissions.org/Clipper/Doctrin e/DoesSatanExist.htm. Eliade,Mircea, ed. Encyclopedia of Religion. New York:Macmillan, 1987. Grimily, Brent, and Elliot Miller. “Can A Christian Be ‘Demonized’?” Christian Research Journal. Summer 1993. http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/crijrnl/ crj0158a.txt. Laurie, Greg. “Foundations for Living:Who is the Devil?” http://www.harvest.org/tools/ffl/devil1.html and http://www.harvest.org/tools/ffl/devil2.html. Lee, Richard, and Ed Hindson. Angels of Deceit. Eugene, OR: Harvest House, 1993. Lewis, C. S. The Screwtape Letters. New York: Macmillan, 1961. Messand, George. The History of the Devil. London: Newell, 1996. Niebuhr, Gus. “Poll Indicates Diminished Role of Devil.” New York Times News Service,May 10, 1997. http://www.anomalousimages. com/news/news042.html. Pant, Charles. Sacred Origins of Profound Things. New York: Penguin, 1996. Turner, Alice K. The History of Hell. New York: Harcourt Brace & Co., 1993. Under, M. F. Demons in the World Today.Wheaton, IL: Tenderly House, 1971. Villanova, Eric. “Territorial Spirits and Spiritual Warfare: A Biblical Perspective,” Christian Research Journal. Summer 1992. http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/crijrnl/ crj0111a.txt. Zimmer, Heinrich. Philosophies of India. New York: Bollingen, 1951.

--James Lewis